As part of a pre-writing process, you should determine an  intended audience. Doing so will help you determine what your audience may know or not know about the subject, what their attitude might be, and so on. Then you can determine the style, level of vocabulary, and what background information your future reader will need.

Awk  --  Awkward expression--affects clarity and ease of reading

When an instructor identifies a sentence or passage as awkward, that ordinarily means the sentence does not read like standard English.  Read the sentence or paragraph aloud; when you do, your ear may help you see where the sentence must be revised to make it sound or read better. Read the following examples aloud and then see if you can revise the sentences so they sound "more like English."

The two stallions over the gray-blue sage brush were eyeing each other.

So we could conclude that a law which made illegal some relationship between two men or two women would be as permissible if entered into by a man and a woman would be.

Please place your donation in the envelope along with the deceased person you want remembered.

In the garage after looking in every closet in frustration, we found dad's fly rod and reel finally.

Now, read aloud through the section in your essay that is marked "Awk." Can you revise it so the meaning is clearer to a reader?

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Ab  --  Improper abbreviation or number. Spell out.

The more formal the writing, the fewer abbreviations should be used. Also, observe the following guidelines:

Some acronyms or initialisms are fairly well known, such as NASA or OPEC. If you use one that readers may not recognize, spell it out completely the first time you use it and then put the abbreviation in parentheses after it.

The most important date to any GI in Vietnam was not his birthday but his date of expected return from overseas (DEROS).

Most style manuals require that you list the complete universal resource locater (URL) for online sources.

Avoid abbreviating the names of months, days, and holidays in formal writing:

Next summer, Ind. Independence day falls on Tues. Tuesday.

Some titles are abbreviated when used with a full name but spelled if they appear before a last name alone, e. g.:

Gen. Tommy Franks   ----   General Franks
Prof. Helian Tow   ---   Professor Tow
Sen. Hilary Clinton   ---   Senator Clinton

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Agr  --  Error in agreement of pronoun and antecedent or of subject  and verb

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement--Basic Rule.  A pronoun stands in the place of another word, called its antecedent.  For example: Jared left his backpack in the chemistry lab.  In this sentence, Jared is the antecedent and his is the pronoun standing in the place of Jared's.  A pronoun must agree in person (e.g., I, You, She) and in number (singular or plural) with its antecedent. In the example above, Jared and his are third person and singular, so they agree in person and number.

Also, since third-person singular pronouns show gender (he, she, it), such pronouns must also agree in gender.  For example: Melanie could never learn to jump curbs with his her skateboard.

Awkward:  The United States must be vigilant to keep terrorists from crossing their borders.
Revised:  The United States must be vigilant to keep terrorists from crossing its borders. (The United States refers to a single entity, so the pronoun must be singular.)

Awkward:  When you leave high school and attend college, they make you study four times as much.  (This sentence has two pronoun weaknesses.  First, a writer should avoid the use of second-person "you" to refer to people generally; it is better to use third-person "one" or "a person."  Also, "they" has no antecedent, so it is confusing.)
Revised:  When one leaves high school and attends college, the homework increases by four times.

Awkward:  A college student has to work in study time as often as he possibly can.  (This sentence uses a masculine pronoun to refer to a gender-neutral antecedent, "college student."  While this was the general practice in past generations, many modern writers seek to avoid such patterns, partly to avoid using sexist language.)
Revision 1: A college student has to work in study time as often as he or she possibly can.
Revison 2:  College students have to work in study time as often as they possibly can.

Can you improve on the following sentences?

1.  Jim and his cousin Todd lifted weights until he was tired.
2.  Jolene gave her mother a gift of her favorite perfume.
3.  They say that watching too many video games harms your eyesight.
4.  Everyone should bring their own blanket for the picnic.
5.  Every breed of horses has their own peculiarities, and a good trainer should be aware of them if he is going to be successful in his training.

Subject-Verb Agreement--Basic Rule. The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb while a plural subject takes a plural verb. The trick is knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.

Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.

Example talks, talk
Which one is the singular form? Which word would you use with he? We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.

Rule 1. Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.

Example My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

Ap  -- Omission or misuse of apostrophe

CONTRACTIONS
Use an apostrophe to show ellipsis, that is the omission of one or more letters, numbers, or words in a standard contraction.

it is  >> it's
they are >> they're
of the clock >> o'clock
class of 1989 >> class of '89

PLURALS OF LETTERS, NUMBERS, AND WORDS NAMED AS WORDS (However, note that it is increasingly common to leave the apostrophes out in such cases.)

Use an apostrophe plus s  for these plurals.

This essay has too many and's.
I received 3 A's and 2 B's last semester.
His license plate has three 6's
Be sure to dot your i's and cross your t's.

POSSESSIVES
Use the apostrophe to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns. Such nouns are marked with an apostrophe (and sometimes an "s") to show where some thing belongs. (e.g., Ben's cat; Americans' government).

The first (and most common) rule is to add an 's to the noun or pronoun which the writer is identifying as owning or possessing something. These are commonly added to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns:

The dog's ears flopped over.
Joe Schwartz's house is being painted.
Bill Jones's family moved to Mexico.
Doris's essay on wells lacked depth.
The business's chairman was forced to resign.
In today's world, electronics rule.
Someone's house is on fire.

An exception to the first rule is often applied to words in which the pronunciation would be made awkward, such as "Euripides," "Moses" "Las Vegas," "United States," and "Jesus," in which there is a repetition of the "s" sound. Such words   are often made possessive by simple adding an apostrophe to them.

Jesus' cross; Las Vegas' list of jazz clubs, Euripides' tragedies, Moses' forty-year trek, etc.

An 's is also added to plural nouns which do not end in -s.

The children's room was full of everybody's coats.
The deer's habitat is threatened.
The women's role in religion is changing.
The geese's flight patterns have remained the same.

The second rule is to just add an apostrophe (') to plural words that already end in an -s.

The teachers' strike in Utah upset the governor.
State workers' incomes have not risen for several years.
The students' use of computers has increased each year.

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Cap  --  Use a capital letter

1. Capitalize names of particular persons or places.

• the Rotary Club
• Northeastern University
• the Empire State Building

2. First words in lines of poetry:

• It was many and many a year ago,
• In a kingdom by the sea,

3. Never capitalize a junior high school or high school unless it is the name of a specific school.

•  Clayton Junior High

4. School subjects are not capitalized except for the names of languages.

• I am studying history and French.

5. The name of a particular class or course is capitalized especially when followed by a number.

• My class is Keyboarding 1120
• A new course called Current History has been added.

6. Don't capitalize seasons--spring, winter, etc.

7.  Capitalize "north, east, south, west" when they indicate parts of the country.

• I lived in the East for ten years.

8. When these words indicate direction, don't capitalize them.

• Walk four miles north to get to the next town.

9.  Titles of people are capitalized when they are followed by the name--

• Uncle Joseph, Aunt DaNeene, etc.

10. Titles of people in very high national or state offices are often capitalized even when not followed by the name.

• Every American President has had problems to face.
• The Secretary of State has left for Europe.

11. When the position is referred to instead of the person, the position is not capitalized.

• The President has not named a new secretary of state.

12. When the title of a person is used in place of the name, it is capitalized. (This rule generally occurs in direct address).

• Will you come with me, Mother?
• Good morning, Professor.

13. Do not capitalize words of family relationship when used with a possessive pronoun.

• my cousin Jim, your aunt Sally.

14. Capitalize the first words and all important words in a title.

• The Last of the Mohicans, For Whom the Bell Tolls

15. Capitalize words preferring to the Deity.

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Coh  --  Lack of Coherence

Essays (and paragraphs) should have unity, coherence, and development. Unity means that the piece of writing stays focused on one central idea.  Saying that a paragraph has coherence means that each sentence ties in a logical way to the sentence before it and after it. Look at the following example of a paragraph without coherence.

Spring is a time of new life. Daffodils and tulips spring into bloom. New lambs, calves, and foals gambol clumsily.  Apricots and almonds sport bright pink blossoms.  The grass is a brighter shade of green.

The above paragraph has unity; every sentence relates to the idea of new life. However, it lacks coherence. If we arrange the ideas in a logical way and if we add appropriate transition words, we can have a better paragraph, such as the following:

Spring is a time of new life.  As we walk through a neighborhood, we see the lawns taking on a brighter shade of green.  In the flower gardens, daffodils and tulips are springing into bloom.  A visit to the country shows that the animal world is also participating in spring. New lambs, calves, and foals gambol clumsily near their mothers.  The whole world seems to be bursting forth with life.

The coherence of an essay can also be strengthened by repeating key words or phrases, by tying paragraphs back to the thesis, by using parallel structures, by repeating ideas in the thesis, and many other ways.

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CS  --  Comma Splice--Two main clauses are joined with a comma; however, a semicolon or period is needed.

What are comma splices and fused/run-on sentences? They are problem sentences that contain two or more main clauses incorrectly joined together. Main clauses, remember, contain an independent subject and verb, so they can stand alone as complete sentences.

A comma splice incorrectly joins two main clauses with a comma, like this:

MAIN CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE =

A fused sentence or run-on sentence has two main clauses joined with no punctuation at all, like this:

MAIN CLAUSE + no punctuation + MAIN CLAUSE =

Know the solution.

To fix a comma splice or fused sentence, use one of the four strategies below.

Rule #1 - Make two complete sentences.

Because comma splices and fused sentences contain two main clauses, you can always add a period (a full stop) at the end of the first clause and then begin the second one with a capital letter. Take a look at the fused sentence below:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

A break should occur between motorcycle and her. To fix the problem with Rule #1, you would revise the sentence like this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle. Her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

Rule #2 - Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions. Some students remember the seven by learning the word fanboys. Each of the seven letters of fanboys stands for one of the coordinating conjunctions.

F = for | A = and | N = nor | B = but | O = or | Y = yet | S = so

These seven coordinating conjunctions, teamed up with a comma, can correctly join two main clauses. Take a look at our original example:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

To fix the problem with Rule #2, you should do this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle, and her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

The important thing to remember with Rule #2 is that you must use a coordinating conjunction that logically joins the two complete sentences. The coordinating conjunction but, for example, wouldn't work in the example above because the writer isn't showing contrast.

Rule #3 - Use a semicolon.

Unlike a comma, a semicolon is a strong enough mark of punctuation to join two main clauses. Use a semicolon like this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle; her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

Keep these three things in mind when you use a semicolon:

• The two main clauses that the semicolon joins should be closely related in meaning.

• Don't capitalize the word that follows the semicolon unless that word is a proper noun, one that is always capitalized.

• Limit your use of semicolons; you should not scatter them wantonly throughout your writing. Semicolons are like orchids; save them for special occasions.

Rule #4 - Use a subordinate conjunction.

When you are fixing a comma splice or fused sentence, subordinate conjunctions can be the most tricky to use. There are two reasons that subordinate conjunctions are tricky: 1) there are many subordinate conjunctions to choose from, and 2) you must use the right punctuation. For those who are not faint of heart, here are the things to keep in mind.

First, know your subordinate conjunctions. Here is a list of them:

Next, keep these general rules in mind:

MAIN CLAUSE + no punctuation + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE

Now take a look at the original problem sentence:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

To fix the sentence with Rule #4, you could do something like these two examples:

While my eighty-one-year-old grandmother rides her Harley motorcycle, her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother rides her Harley motorcycle as her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

A good writer will fix problem sentences using all four strategies: adding a period and a capital letter, using a comma and a conjunction, joining the two main clauses with a semicolon, or subordinating one of the parts with a subordinate conjunction.

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Dang  --  Dangling Modifier

Dangling modifiers are generally phrases or clauses that are misplaced in the sentence, causing some confusion for the reader. Generally, modifying elements need to close enough to the word(s) they modify to avoid confusion or ambiguity.

Example:  While at home, good meals were often fixed for me by my mother.

In the above sentence, "while at home" appears to modify "good meals." It is more likely that the writer means one of the following:

While I was at home, my mother often fixed good meals for me. 
(or)
While my mother was at home, she often fixed good meals for me.

Occasionally, a misplaced modifier can even lead to some unintended absurd humor, such as in the following:

Example:  Flying over the city, the St. George LDS temple was seen.

Better:  While I was flying over the city, I could see the St. George temple.

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Dev  --  Inadequate paragraph development

Essays (and paragraphs) should have unity, coherence, and development.  Unity means that the piece of writing stays focused on one central idea. Coherence means that each sentence ties in a logical way to the sentence before it and after it. Development, in a paragraph, means that the idea expressed in the topic sentence is supported fully and logically. Look at the following example of a paragraph without sufficient development.

Many people in modern society have an obsession with how they look.  They are concerned with their body shape.  They are concerned  with their facial appearance.  They want to avoid showing signs of aging.  All in all, they seem to be quite narcissistic.

Each of the sentences following the topic sentence above is more of a restatement of the topic sentence than a development of the idea.  Look at the following to see better development of the same topic idea.

Many people in modern society have an obsession with how they look.  Enrollment in fitness clubs is extremely high. Many people have fitness equipment in their own home, equipment that is guaranteed to flatten the abs, lift the buttocks, and trim the thighs. Along with the cartoons of early morning tv, there are now many shows demonstrating fitness routines, shows that mom can follow along at home. In addition, breast enhancements, tummy tucks, and liposuction are becoming more common elective surgeries. And the face must also appear youthful and attractive. Lip enhancement, abrasive skin treatment, botox shots, face lifts and plastic surgery are not only for film stars in society's obsession with defying age and being attractive.

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Frag  --  Sentence Fragment

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence. Below are some examples with the fragments shown in italics. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the main clause.

Fragment (phrase or dependent clause)	Possible Revision
Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.	Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
Coach Deetz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.	Coach Deetz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.	I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.	Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.

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IE  --  An introductory element that should be set off with a comma.

Often, in speaking and in writing, we have introductory elements before the main clause in the sentence.  As in the previous sentence (and this one), such introductory elements are often set off with a comma.  Introductory elements may be dependent clauses, phrases, or words.

Subordinate clauses:
Before he can pass calculus, he must first develop the habit of writing down each step in solving the problem.
Although Tanika had never visited Scotland, in her mind she had a vision of a country that was green, green, green.
While Dr. Brown wanted a class that was orderly, he also wanted students to feel comfortable in expressing tentative ideas.

Phrases:
From his perch in the juniper tree, Mario dreamed of using his bow to bag the biggest buck on the Arizona strip.
Eating his last piece of bread, Jakob wondered whether starvation or being shot would be a less painful death.
After running her first marathon, Letitia felt that one more step would cause her to collapse.

Note: After short phrases, the comma is often deleted.
In the morning it is easier to be optimistic.
After lunch we can begin to study for finals.

Words:
Indeed, those who have always had plenty of food can scarcely imagine the time spent in Bangladesh by a family seeking enough food to survive.
Therefore, we have concluded that fasting two meals a week is good for one's soul.
Afterwards, it is easier to sense the daily suffering of those starving in Ethiopia.

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Log  --  Faulty logic

Logic is the study of what else is true if one or more things are true.  For example, if it is true that LaToya had four ear rings in her left ear, and if it is true that she added one more ear ring to the same ear, we can be fairly certain that she now has five ear rings in her left ear. Deductive logic and our confidence in certain mathematical operations make us certain of our conclusion, even without counting the ear rings.  That sort of logic is called deductive logic.

Another form of logic is called inductive logic.  It is based on probabilities and does not make the same claim for certainty that deductive logic does. For example, if we randomly selected and interviewed two thousand Dixie State College students and found that exactly one in three students had been to Disneyland at least once in his or her life, we might postulate that approximately one third of all Dixie State College students had been to Disneyland.  Given the size of our sample and the fact that they were selected randomly, we might have some confidence in the probablility that our conclusion is correct, but we could never be certain unless we surveyed them all. Inductive logic always has the element of probability, even though the probability may be high.

When we use faulty logic, we call that making a fallacy. Fallacies of logic  can occur in both deductive and inductive logic.  For example, in deductive logic, one might begin with a premise that one thinks is true, but it is not. Look at the following  example of a deductive fallacy, which uses faulty logic because the first premise is false:

Premise  --  All Mormons have more than one wife.
Premise  --  Mr. Dudley is a Mormon.
Conclusion  --  Therefore, Mr. Dudley has more than one wife.

There are many forms of inductive fallacies, but one of the most common is drawing a conclusion based on a survey that is neither random nor sufficiently large, for example:

While I was at the Beaver Dam Bar last night, I met these 5 chicks from SUTU. Boy, all those SUTU chicks can really put away the beer.

The difficulty in the above is that (presumably) the girls you meet in a bar are not a random representation of all SUTU coeds.  Also, 5 coeds is to small a group to draw any generalizations about all SUTU coeds.

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¶    --   Begin new paragraph

Paragraphs ordinarily signal a change of some kind.  They can denote a new speaker (when dialog is used), a new point or example, a new section of the essay (e.g,, body, conclusion), a new perspective, etc.

Also, one function of paragraph is to create white space for the reader.  Readers see the pattern of the essay better, and may remember key ideas better when they are set off in a paragraph.  Many good writers find a way to break a paragraph, even if it focuses on one idea, if it becomes too long.  If possible, keep paragraphs approximately 4-7 sentences long. 

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//  --  Faulty parallelism

Parallelism is the stylistic practice of placing similar words or ideas in similar grammatical patterns. Note the awkwardness of the following sentence:

Mario likes snowboarding, snorkeling, and to cycle.

Revised: Mario likes snowboarding, snorkeling, and cycling.

Parallelism can be used effectively for poetic or rhetorical effects, such as the following well-known examples:

Jack Spratt could eat no fat; his wife could eat no lean.

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.

For a well-known example of moving rhetoric that relies heavily on syntactic parallelism, find a copy of Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech. You may find the speech online by clicking on the following link. 
Martin Luther King  ---  "I Have a Dream"

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PV  --  Point of view shift

A Point of view shift usually involves  a shift in the pronoun that is being referred to in a text.  For example, consider the following passage:

My favorite restaurant is TGIF.  When you first go in, you notice how the atmosphere is so fun-filled. In such a casual atmosphere, one might not expect such tasty meals, but the menu is filled with delicious choices.

Each of the three sentences above uses a different pronoun: "my" is first person; "you" is second person, and "one" is third person.  In short, the paragraph has three different points of view. This paragraph, since it is personal and not very formal, probably should stay with first person, such as the following:

My favorite restaurant is TGIF.  When I first go in, I notice how the atmosphere is so fun-filled. In such a casual atmosphere, I don't  expect such tasty meals, but the menu is filled with delicious choices.

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Red  --Redundancy

Redundancy is a form of wordiness.  While language is naturally redundant, good writers avoid repetition  of words or ideas when the effect is only to pad the essay, not clarify. Consider the following examples:

The deer's coat is grayish brown in color.
The metallic steel balls which are round in shape make good marbles.
Each year on an annual basis we decorate the graves that are located in our nation's cemeteries. 

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RO  --  Run-on  or fused sentence--Two main clauses fused together without appropriate punctuation.

What are comma splices and fused/run-on sentences? They are problem sentences that contain two or more main clauses incorrectly joined together. Main clauses, remember, contain an independent subject and verb, so they can stand alone as complete sentences.

A comma splice incorrectly joins two main clauses with a comma, like this:

MAIN CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE =

A fused sentence or run-on sentence has two main clauses joined with no punctuation at all, like this:

MAIN CLAUSE + no punctuation + MAIN CLAUSE =

Know the solution.

To fix a comma splice or fused sentence, use one of the four strategies below.

Rule #1 - Make two complete sentences.

Because comma splices and fused sentences contain two main clauses, you can always add a period (a full stop) at the end of the first clause and then begin the second one with a capital letter. Take a look at the fused sentence below:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

A break should occur between motorcycle and her. To fix the problem with Rule #1, you would revise the sentence like this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle. Her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

Rule #2 - Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions. Some students remember the seven by learning the mnemonic word fanboys. Each of the seven letters of fanboys stands for one of the coordinating conjunctions.

F = for | A = and | N = nor | B = but | O = or | Y = yet | S = so

These seven coordinating conjunctions, teamed up with a comma, can correctly join two main clauses. Take a look at our original example:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

To fix the problem with Rule #2, you should do this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle, and her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

The important thing to remember with Rule #2 is that you must use a coordinating conjunction that logically joins the two complete sentences. The coordinating conjunction but, for example, wouldn't work in the example above because the writer isn't showing contrast.

Rule #3 - Use a semicolon.

Unlike a comma, a semicolon is a strong enough mark of punctuation to join two main clauses. Use a semicolon like this:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle; her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

Keep these three things in mind when you use a semicolon:

• The two main clauses that the semicolon joins should be closely related in meaning.

• Don't capitalize the word that follows the semicolon unless that word is a proper noun, one that is always capitalized.

• Limit your use of semicolons; you should not scatter them wantonly throughout your writing. Semicolons are like orchids; save them for special occasions.

Rule #4 - Use a subordinate conjunction.

When you are fixing a comma splice or fused sentence, subordinate conjunctions can be the most tricky to use. There are two reasons that subordinate conjunctions are tricky: 1) there are many subordinate conjunctions to choose from, and 2) you must use the right punctuation. For those who are not faint of heart, here are the things to keep in mind.

First, know your subordinate conjunctions. Here is a list of them:

Next, keep these general rules in mind:

MAIN CLAUSE + no punctuation + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE

Now take a look at the original problem sentence:

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother still rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

To fix the sentence with Rule #4, you could do something like these two examples:

While my eighty-one-year-old grandmother rides her Harley motorcycle, her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

My eighty-one-year-old grandmother rides her Harley motorcycle as her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars.

A good writer will fix problem sentences using all four strategies: adding a period and a capital letter, using a comma and a conjunction, joining the two main clauses with a semicolon, or subordinating one of the parts with a subordinate conjunction.

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Sp  --  Spelling error

Many spelling errors occur in student essays, despite the spell-check feature on most word processors.  The dictionary is still a necessary device for editing essays.  One difficulty with a spell-checker is that many words that are clearly incorrect won't be caught because the offending word is spelled correctly but does not fit the context.  Consider the following:

Two of the balls are blue, but the others are read.
Please place you're books over their.
His close are ringing wet from the rein.

Each of the words in red are misspelled versions of the correct word for the context; however, the spell-checker would see them all as correct.

The best advice is to know your own strengths and weaknesses.  If spelling is a weakness, spend some time with a dictionary in the final editing of the essay. Careless spelling sends the message to your readers that you are not willing to work hard to produce a professional-looking essay.

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T   --   Wrong tense of verb

This mark often means that you have changed tense improperly. For example, consider the following:

Holga and I enjoyed visiting the dairy farm in Vermont.  The giant Limousine Holsteins gave almost 6 gallons of milk a day. Their teats  dripped milk as they entered the barn. They look as if they can't wait to have the milk machines attached. Of course, it may be that they are eager for their rolled oats and corn, sweetened with molasses. 

Notice that the first three sentences are told in past tense as an experience previous to the telling of the story.  However, the last two sentences use present tense verbs as if the events were occurring in present time. That is an improper and confusing shift in tense for the reader.

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Trans  --  Faulty transition

In some way, a writer must connect ideas. One way is to create topic-driven transition(s) that highlight the relationship between ideas in adjoining paragraphs. Further, transition words add clarity and coherence to a piece of writing. They function as guides, showing the relation between ideas. Therefore, they can make the writing easier to read. However, writers should always ask themselves what meaning is conveyed with each transition.  Observe the following pairs in which faulty transitions are revised:

Lorinda has always liked jazz; in addition, her husband prefers listening to Italian operas.
Revised: Lorinda has always liked jazz; on the other hand, her husband prefers listening to Italian operas.

It has only been one year since Sung Hee's husband died; wherefore, she is not interested in dating anyone.
Revised:  It has only been one year since Sung Hee's husband died; consequently, she is not interested in dating anyone.

Maria was offended by Dr. Wilson's lack of understanding of Hispanic culture; indeed, she much preferred going to Dr. Martinez.
Revised: Maria was offended by Dr. Wilson's lack of understanding of Hispanic culture; therefore, she much preferred going to Dr. Martinez.

TRANSITIONS are words that act like bridges across the gaps that often occur between sentences.

Try reading these two sentences:

John is very tall.  He does not play basketball.

, but he ;however, ,however, yet he . However,

Did it take you a minute or so to see the connection between those two ideas?  Now, try it again with the relationship between the sentences filled in with a word such as these:  but he ;however, ,however, yet he . However,

John is very tall.  However, he does not play basketball.

The relationship should have been clearer because the word "however" signaled the reader that the second sentence contrasts with or maybe contradicts the first one.  Now, read the next passage below:

The city government was determined not to levy new taxes. Therefore, . . .

As soon as you reached the word "therefore," you knew what to expect--some sort of consequence or result of the city government's determination.  We need words such as "however" and "therefore" as transitions to mark relationships between sentences for our readers.  We also have to use these markers precisely and sparingly!

SOME USEFUL TRANSITION MARKERS:

To repeat an idea just stated: In other words, That is, To repeat,

Example:  The committee has clearly indicated its unwillingness to support this venture. In other words, it has refused to grant the necessary funds.

 To restate an idea more precisely: To be exact, More specifically, To be specific, More precisely, To be precise,

Example: The Bursar's Office stated that all fees are due soon.  To be specific, all fees must be paid by October 1.

To illustrate an idea: For example, For instance,

Example: He tried desperately to please his new girlfriend.  For example, he even shaved every day.

To mark a new idea or an addition to what's been said: besides, furthermore, further, moreover, in addition, similarly,  and, but, also, too,

Example: Joan is one of those impatient people who dislike waiting in lines.  She also prefers to find her own way rather than asking for directions.

To announce a contrast, a change in direction: nevertheless, on the other hand, in contrast, instead, on the contrary, yet, but, however, still, 

Example: Jim was sorry to see the semester end. Still, he was glad that his test were over.

To show cause and effect: therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, as a result, for this reason, thus, so

Example: The rain drenched the football field.  Hence, the game was postponed until the next day.

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Var  --  Lack of sentence variety

Good writers know the effect of various sentence forms, using those that best fit.  Beginning writers, those just learning to read and write, write primarily with simple sentences, such as those in the following passage:

It was Christmas. I got up early. There were lots of presents. Mom said we had to eat first. Then we opened the presents. My favorite was a bike.

As we gain more mastery of English, we begin using more complex syntactical forms, such as compound, complex, compound-complex, passive, periodic, and cumulative sentences. However, some writers still rely on the style they first learned,  merely using coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to add ideas together. This often produces long compound sentences, such as the following:

It was Christmas, so I got up early, and there were lots of presents, but mom said we had to eat first, and then we opened the presents. My favorite was a bike.

Adding complex sentences by using subordinate conjunctions (after, although, as, because, when while, since, etc.) can help vary the style. Also, the subordinate conjunctions aften act as transitions since they show the relation between ideas. For example:

Because it was Christmas, I got up early. Although I was eager to open the many presents, mom said we had to eat first. Then we opened the presents. My favorite was a bike.

Passive sentences reverse the syntactical order of an active sentence. Note in the following example that the active sentence gives emphasis to the Lisa Leslie, the person who dunked the ball.  The passive sentences emphasizes what was done.

Active: Lisa Leslie  dunked the basketball in a WNBA game on July 31, 2002.
Passive:  The basketball was first dunked in a WNBA game on July 31, 2002. (by Lisa Leslie)

Your instructor may also introduce you to the strengths of cumulative and periodic sentences. If so, look to see whether you have used them appropriately.

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WW  --  Wrong word

Wrong words make  writing unclear and confusing. Wrong words often occur because writers rely on a word speller. the speller will give  a correct spelling of a word, but it may not be the word the writer is intending.  The way to avoid using wrong words is to use a dictionary during the revision and editing phases of writing.  The use of wrong words can sometimes lead to unintended humor, which may be embarrassing to the writer. Consider the following lines from the local newspaper:

1979 CJ5 Jeep, 37,000 actual miles, with wench on front.  (an ad)

'Magic' faces educating the pubic (a headline after Magic Johnson announced he had tested HIV-positive)

And examples from student essays:

A seventh extinct is needed to predetermine where the basketball should go.

Children do better when raised in an atmosphere of love and conception.

I asked him to expose of the cigarette.

In larger citizens, physician-abortionists practice virtuously unmolested abortions.

The crowd was loud and rude. Their conductivity was terrible.

Religion teaches that the vowels of marriage are to be sacred and trusted.

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Wdy  --  Wordy

A wordy paper has unnecessary words. It is not precise. It may occur as a writer pads an essay shorter than assigned; it may occur accidentally. In either case, it is offensive to good readers. Good writers will edit out excess words and seek to be as precise and concise as possible.

William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White list a number of commonly used expressions that should be avoided:

the questions as to whether  --  Revised: whether
there is no doubt but that  --  Rev.:  no doubt
used for fuel purposes   --   Rev.:  used for fuel
he is a man who   --   Rev.:  he
in a hasty manner  --  Rev.: hastily
this is a subject that  --  Rev.: this subject
the reason why is that  --  Rev.: because
owing to the fact that  --  Rev.: since (therefore)
in spite of the fact that  --  Rev.: though (although)
               (The Elements of Style. New York: Macmillan,     1979.)

The following selection has many unnecessary words:

It seems that history, in every country, is taught in such a way as to have a tendency to magnify or glorify that country:  children can be said to learn to believe that it is their own country which has always been in the right and almost always victorious, that it is their own country which has produced almost all the great men, and that their own country is in all respects quite superior to all other countries. (79 words)

Revised:  Every country's history glorifies that country. Children learn that their country has always been right and victorious, has produced almost all the great people, and has been superior. (28 words)

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